Science also within a buffer zone between the coast and development. Thus, it appears that, during the next includes features such as beaches and adjacent sea cliffs or 50 years, crucial decisions must be made concerning how we dune lines. The solution we pick depends upon how we value will deal with the increased population associated with the coastal zone. If we value the development more than the increased demands on resources, including land, water, min- beach, then we may choose to protect development at all cost.

The choices we make will inevitably reflect our If we value the beach environment, we may choose more flex- values. SUMMARY The immediate causes of the environmental crisis are over- Five fundamental concepts establish a philosophical frame- population, urbanization, and industrialization, all of which work for our investigation of environmental geology: have occurred with too little ethical regard for our land and 1.

The increasing world population is the number one with inadequate institutions to cope with environmental environmental problem. Solving environmental problems involves both scien- tific understanding and the fostering of social, economic, 2. Sustainability is the preferred solution to many envi- and ethical behavior that allows solutions to be imple- ronmental problems.

Beyond this, complex environmental problems can 3. An understanding of the Earth system and rates of be difficult to solve, due to the possibility of exponential change in systems is critical to solving environmental growth, lag times between cause and effect, and irreversible problems.

A new emerging policy tool is the precau- 4. Earth processes that are hazardous to people have tionary principle. The idea behind the principle is that when always existed. These natural hazards must be recog- a potentially serious environmental problem exists, scien- nized and avoided when possible, and their threat to tific certainty is not required to take a precautionary human life and property minimized.

Some environ- mental problems are sufficiently serious that it is better to 5. Results of scientific inquiry to solve a particular envi- be safe than sorry.

Which solution we choose reflects our value system. Diamond, J. London: Penguin Books. Lovelock, J. The Ages of Gaia. New York: 2. Hunt, T. Rethinking the fall of Easter Island. American Scientist 94 5 Earth Systems Science Committee. Earth Systems 3. Cloud, P. Cosmos, Earth, and Man. New Haven, CT: Science.

Ermann, M. Terre Haute, IN. Leopold, A. A Sand County Almanac. New York: 5. Davidson, J. Oxford University Press. Exploring Earth. Foster, K. Population Reference Bureau. World Population Science and the precautionary principle. Science Data Sheet. Washington, DC. Brown, L. Saving the Easton, T. Is the Planet. New York: W. Smil, V. How many billions to go? Nature Taking Sides, Environmental Issues. Issue 5. Hooke, LeB. GSA Today 4 9 , Shepard, P. Coming Home to the Pleistocene. Moncrief, L.

Science Louv, R. Last Child in the Woods. Chapel Hill, NC: Ellis, W. A Soviet sea lies dying. National Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. Geographic 2 National Research Council. The Earth and Human Affairs. San Francisco: Canfield Press. Assuming that there is an environmental crisis today, what pos- could help in determining the project s potential environmen- sible solutions are available to alleviate the crisis?

How will tal impact. In other words, consider a development and then a solutions in developing countries differ from those in highly series of consequences resulting from it.

Some of the impacts industrialized societies? Will religion or political systems have may be positive and some may be negative in your estimation. If so, how will they affect the 5. Do you believe we have a real connection to our Pleistocene solutions? Could such a connection explain our childlike love 2. It has been argued that we must control human population of baby animals or storytelling around a camp fire? Is the because, otherwise, we will not be able to feed everyone.

Earth, would we still want to have a smaller population than 6. Is the Gaia hypothesis science? How could you test the main that? Which would be hard to test? We state that sustainability is the environmental objective. Defend or criticize the notion that increase in human popula- Construct an argument to support this statement.

Are the ideas tion is the environmental problem and that sustainability is the of sustainability and building a sustainable economy different solution. Do you think the precautionary principle should be applied to ent and have a high standard of living? How are they different, the problem of controlling the growth of the human popula- and why?

If you do, how could it be applied? The concept of environmental unity is an important one today. San Andreas fault in southern California is the plate boundary between the Pacific and North American plates. Here in the Indio Hills the fault is delin- eated by lines of native palm trees.

E arth, our home, is a dynamic place. Over periods of hundreds to a few thousands of years recorded history to hundreds of thousands and millions of years, we observe direct result of processes related to movement on the San Andreas fault. However, this beautiful topography comes at a high cost to society. Since , earthquakes change in the land and climate and study the geologic on the San Andreas fault system or on nearby faults, record to interpret longer term change.

California straddles undoubtedly influenced by the plate boundary, have cost the boundary between two tectonic plates, which are dis- hundreds of lives and many billions of dollars in property cussed in detail in this chapter. That boundary between the damage. Construction of buildings, bridges, and other North American and Pacific plates is the notorious San structures in California is more expensive than elsewhere Andreas fault see opening photograph. A fault is a fracture because they must be designed to withstand ground along which one side has moved relative to the other, and shaking caused by earthquakes.

Older structures have the San Andreas fault is a huge fracture zone, hundreds of to be retrofitted, or have changes made to their structure, kilometers long. Two major cities, Los Angeles to the south to withstand the shaking, and many people purchase and San Francisco to the north, are located on opposite earthquake insurance in an attempt to protect themselves sides of this fault. San Francisco was nearly destroyed by a from the big one. Many of the moderate to large earthquakes in the toward San Francisco, which is on the North American plate.

Los Angeles area are on faults related to the San Andreas In about 20 million years the cities will be side by side. If peo- fault system. Of course, there will still be a plate boundary California near both Los Angeles and San Francisco is a between the Pacific and North American plates 20 million.

After reading and rock types and their envi- important to the study of the envi- the chapter, you should be prepared to ronmental significance. If this is your first geology and biogeochemical. However, the boundary really a group of subcycles:1 may not be the San Andreas fault.

The Tectonic Cycle 2. Tectonic processes are the materials on or near the earth s surface have been cre- driven by forces deep within the Earth, as shown in Figure 2. Continuously operating Earth s Lithosphere and Crust The outer layers of the processes produce the earth materials land, water, and earth are shown in Figure 2.

The outermost layer, called atmospheric necessary for our survival. Collectively, these the lithosphere, is stronger and more rigid than deeper. Oceanic ridge. Ocean a. Asthe n osp he A fr ic a. Lithosphere Trench Mantle. The outer layer or lithosphere is approximately km thick and is stronger and more rigid than the deeper asthenosphere, which is a hot and slowly flowing layer of relatively low-strength rock.

The oceanic ridge is a spreading center where plates pull apart, drawing hot, buoyant material into the gap. After these plates cool and become dense, they descend at oceanic trenches subduction zones , sometimes to depths as deep as the core mantle boundary, completing the convection sys- tem.

This process of spreading produces ocean basins, and mountain ranges often form where plates converge at subduction zones. Modified after Grand, S. Journal of Geophysical Research, v. A schematic diagram of Earth s layers is shown in Figure 2. Modified after Hamblin, W. Earth s Dynamic Systems, 6th ed. New York: Macmillan. Mantl km 60 Core Rigid Entire Earth 5. Notice that the lithosphere includes the crust and part of the mantle, and the asthenos- phere is located entirely within the mantle.

Properties of the various layers have been estimated based on interpretation of geophysical data primar- ily seismic waves from earthquakes and examination of rocks, thought to have been brought up from below by tectonic processes, and meteorites, thought to be pieces of an old earthlike planet. From Levin, H. Outer core Contemporary Physical Geology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Below the lithosphere lies the asthenosphere, a hot and plastically flowing layer of relatively low-strength rock that is present to a depth of about km.

Through detailed study of ocean basins and continents, earth scientists Inner have established that the lithosphere averages about km core in thickness, ranging from a few kilometers beneath the crests of mid-ocean ridges to km beneath ocean basins b to 20 to km beneath continents. The outer part of the lithosphere is the crust. Crustal rocks are less dense on the average than the rocks below, but oceanic crust is denser than continental crust.

Oceanic crust is also thinner: The ocean floor has an average crustal thickness of about 7 km, Figure 2. United States and the Cocos plate off Central America. The boundaries between lithospheric plates are geologically Movement of the Lithospheric Plates Unlike the active areas where most earthquakes and volcanic activity asthenosphere, which is thought to be more or less continu- occur.

In fact, plate boundaries are defined as the areas where ous, the lithosphere is broken into large pieces called litho- most seismic activity takes place Figure 2. It is at these spheric plates that move relative to one another Figure 2.

Because of this continuous recycling, tec- A lithospheric plate may include both a continent and tonic processes are collectively called the tectonic cycle. Some of the As the lithospheric plates move over the asthenos- largest plates are the Pacific, North American, South Ameri- phere, they carry the continents with them. Modified from Christopherson, R. Geosystems, 2nd ed. Notice the correspondence between this map and the plate boundaries. Wegener, who presented evidence for continental drift based not known, and geologists realized that continents could on the shape of continents, particularly across the Atlantic not plow through the denser material of the ocean floor.

Ocean, and the similarity of fossils found in South America It was not until the late s, when seafloor spreading was and Africa. Wegener s hypothesis was not taken seriously, discovered, that a plausible mechanism for continental however, because the existence of lithospheric plates was movement was put forward.

New oceanic lithosphere is being produced at the spreading ridge divergent plate bound- ary. Elsewhere, oceanic lithosphere returns to the interior of Earth at a convergent plate boundary subduction zone. Modified from Lutgens, F. Tarbuck, Essentials of Geology. Divergent boundary Convergent boundary. Transform fault. Oceanic spreading Subduction Hot rock ridge Cool rock zone rising sinking. As one edge of a plate is being Typically, this occurs at mid-ocean ridges, and the process is formed, the opposite edge is being destroyed, as the lithos- called seafloor spreading Figure 2.

Thus, a Convergent boundaries occur where plates are collid- continent does not move through oceanic crust but is car- ing. If an oceanic plate collides with a plate carrying a conti- ried along with it by the movement of the plate. Conver- species is to biology a unifying concept that explains an gent boundaries of this type are called subduction zones. Biologists now have an However, if the leading edges of both plates are composed understanding, through the discovery of DNA, of the of continental rocks, it is more difficult for subduction to genetic mechanisms that drive evolutionary change.

In geol- start. In this case a continental collision boundary may develop, ogy, we are still seeking the exact mechanism that drives in which the edges of the plates crumple into mountains see plate tectonics, but we think it is most likely convection.

This type of con- rocks are heated deep in the earth, they become less dense vergent boundary condition has produced some of the high- and rise to spreading ridges. As the rocks move laterally, est linear mountain systems on Earth, such as the Alpine they cool, eventually becoming dense enough to sink at sub- and Himalayan mountain belts Figure 2.

If you examine Figures 2. Most such boundaries understand that these boundaries are not narrow cracks but occur in oceanic crust, but some occur on continents. A zones that are tens or hundreds of kilometers across. We are now discovering a fascinating it begins to modify the local and regional climate by story concerning their origin. The story removes some of blocking storm paths and producing a rain shadow, the mystery as to how mountains form, but it has not in which the mountain slopes on the rain-shadow side removed the wonder.

The new realization that mountains receive much less rainfall than does the other side of are systems resulting from the interaction between tectonic the mountain.

As a result, rates of runoff and erosion activity that leads to crustal thickening , the climate, and on the side of the rain shadow are less than for the Earth surface processes particularly erosion has greatly other side. Nevertheless, the rate of erosion increases expanded our knowledge of how mountains develop. At this point, no tains. The mean or average elevation that a mountain amount of additional uplift will increase the mean ele- range attains is a function of the uplift rate, which varies vation of the mountains above the dynamic maximum.

The greater the rate of uplift, the mean elevation may be reached. Furthermore, when higher the point to which the mean elevation of a moun- the uplift ceases or there is a reduction in the rate of tain range is likely to rise during its evolution. A Isostasy Idealized diagram or cartoon showing the principle of isostatic uplift. Admiral Frost is left adrift on an iceberg and is uncomfortable being so far above the surface of the water a.

He decides to remove the 10, kg 22, Ib of ice that is above the water 10, line on the iceberg on which he is standing b. Were it not kg for isostatic buoyant uplift, Admiral Frost would reach his goal c. However, in a world with isostasy, uplift results from removal of the ice, and there is always one-tenth of the iceberg above the water d. What would have hap- 90, pened if Admiral Frost had elected to remove 10, kg kg of ice from only one-half of the area of ice exposed above the sea? Answer: The maximum elevation of the iceberg above the water would have actually increased.

Similarly, as mountains erode, isostatic adjustments also occur, and the maximum elevation of mountain peaks may actually increase as a result of the erosion alone! From Keller, E. Active tectonics. Thus, peaks may still increase! This statement seems coun- mountain range rises in response. As a result of the ero- terintuitive until we examine in detail some of the physi- sion, the maximum elevation of mountain peaks actually cal processes resulting from erosion.

The uplift that may increase, while the mean elevation of the entire moun- results from the erosion is known as isostatic uplift.

As a general rule, as the equivalent Isostasy is the principle whereby thicker, more buoyant of 1 km 0. The principle governing how erosion approximately five-sixths of a kilometer one-half mile. The ficti- In summary, research concerning the origin of moun- tious Admiral Frost has been marooned on an iceberg tains suggests that they result in part from tectonic and is uncomfortable being far above the surface processes that cause the uplift, but they also are intimately of the water.

He attempts to remove the ice that is above related to climatic and erosional processes that contribute the water line. Were it not for isostatic buoyant uplift, to the mountain building process. Erosion occurs during he would have reached his goal to be close to the and after tectonic uplift, and isostatic compensation to that water line.

Unfortunately for Admiral Frost, this is not the erosion occurs for millions of years. This is one reason it is way the world works; continuous isostatic uplift of difficult to remove mountain systems from the landscape.

So after removing the ice Mountains in the southeastern United States were ori- above the water line, he still stands almost as much ginally produced by tectonic uplift several hundred above the water line as before.

There has been sufficient erosion of the original which they are composed are less dense than the rocks of Appalachian Mountains to have removed them as topo- the mantle beneath. Thus, they tend to float on top of the graphic features many times over were it not for continued denser mantle. Also, in mountains, erosion is not uniform isostatic uplift in response to the erosion. Andreas fault in California, where a segment of the Pacific America and the junction of the spreading ridges associ- plate is sliding horizontally past a segment of the North ated with the Pacific, Cocos, and Nazca plates west of American plate see Figures 2.

South America. At some locations, three plates join, and these areas are known as triple junctions. Figure 2.

In general, the American, and Pacific plates on the west coast of North rates are about as fast as your fingernails grow, varying. Courtesy of Tanya Atwater. The San Andreas fault moves years, there has been about km of displacement on the horizontally on the average of about 3. Los Angeles, which is on the Pacific tures such as rock units or streams may be displaced where plate, is slowly moving toward San Francisco, which is on they cross the fault Figure 2.

During the past 4 million the North American plate. In about 20 million years, the cities will be side by side, and, if people are present, they will be arguing over which is a suburb of the other. Plates do not necessarily move steadily past each other; they are generally restrained by the friction between them, moving locally or regionally only when the strain becomes so great that they snap apart, causing an earthquake.

The horizon- tal displacement along a transform boundary such as the San Andreas fault may be as much as several meters during a great earthquake. Fortunately, such an event generally occurs at any given location only once every few hundred years. Pangaea and the Present Continents Movement of the lithospheric plates is responsible for the present shapes and locations of the continents.

There is good evidence that the most recent global episode of continental movement started about million years ago, with the breaking up of a super- FIGURE 2.

The stream bed is the white line. Notice that the stream continent called Pangaea a name first proposed by Alfred has a pronounced right bend where it crosses the fault that is running from Wegener. Pangaea itself was formed by earlier continental the right to the left side of the photograph near the bottom.

Michael Collier collisions. Direction of plate motion Subduction zone. Shown here is what are thought to have been the positions of the continents at million years ago a ; million years ago b ; 65 million years ago c ; and at present d. Arrows show direc- tions of plate motion.

See text for further explanation of the closing of the Tethys Sea, the collision of India with China, and the formation of mountain ranges. From Dietz, R.

Holden Journal of Geophysical Research Copyright by the American Geophysical Union. Modifications and block diagrams from Christopherson, R. Ocean-floor spreading over closed, leaving the small remnant known today as the the past million years separated Eurasia and North Mediterranean Sea. About 50 million years ago, India col- America from the southern landmass, Eurasia from North lided with China, producing the Himalayan Mountains the America, and the southern continents South America, highest mountains in the world and the Tibetan Plateau.

Africa, India, Antarctica, and Australia from one another. That collision is still happening today. Chapter 2 Earth Materials and Processes View PDF Geology. Contributors: By: Kenneth J. Gregory, Ian G. Simmons, Anthony J. Brazel, John W. Day, Edward A. Keller, Arthur G. Prentice Hall. Fish habitat assessments for Santa Cruz.

Fourth Edition. With assistance from. Environmental Geology Edward. A Keller Google Books. Environmental Geology BS. Keller was chair of the Environmental Studies and View PDF In this chapter we discuss what environmental geology is and some aspects of culture and society that Email: jenniferb spokanefalls. Phone: Text: Introduction to Environmental Geology, 4 th. Edition, Edward A. View PDF Environmental chemistry is most concerned with the River, NJ, Environmental Geology,.

Sixth edition. Macmillan Publishing. Environmental Protection Agency, Office. Edwards, R. Ore deposit geology, Ist Edition,. Chapman and Hall. New Delhi, Keller and Nicholas Pinter. Review by: Deborah J. Box , Hilltop Lakes, Mailing add: Dept. Environmental, groundwater and engineering geology: Applications from. Keller, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Physical Chemistry, P. Rakshit, Sarat Book House, Calcutta. Keller, Prentice Hall. Introductory Mining Engineering - Howard L.

Hartman, John Wiley and Sons. Hall, GED Hydrogeology MacMillan Publishing Company. The second chapter presents the basics of toxicological chemistry and its relationship to environmental chemistry. Chapters then describe the atmosphere, its structure and importance for protecting life on Earth, air pollutants, and the sustainability of atmospheric quality. The author explains the nature of the geosphere and discusses soil for growing food as well as geosphere sustainability.

He also describes the biosphere and its sustainability. The final sphere described is the anthrosphere. The text explains human influence on the environment, including climate, pollution in and by the anthrosphere, and means of sustaining this sphere. It also discusses renewable, nonpolluting energy and introduces workplace monitoring.

For readers needing additional basic chemistry background, the book includes two chapters on general chemistry and organic chemistry. This updated edition includes three new chapters, new examples and figures, and many new homework problems. This three-volume set illustrates and examines topics within this dynamic and rapidly changing interdisciplinary field. Manahan Publisher: CRC Press ISBN: Category: Science Page: View: Read Now » Written by an expert, using the same approach that made the previous two editions so successful, Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry, Third Edition expands the scope of book to include the strongly emerging areas broadly described as sustainability science and technology, including green chemistry and industrial ecology.

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